There are more species of fungi, bacteria, and protozoa in a single scoop of soil than there are plants and vertebrate animals in all of North America, and of these, fungi are the great recyclers of our planet, the mycomagicians disassembling large organic molecules into simpler forms, which in turn nourish other members of the ecological community. Fungi are the interface organisms between life and death.*
Mushrooms and Mycelia
Introduction
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of fungi that each have networks of mycelium
(fine filaments or hyphae). These networks distinguish a mushroom from the other
two kinds of fungus: a yeast, which has one cell that can divide amazingly,
and a mold, whose hyphae are merely furry. In contrast, some mushrooms can grow
these networks of hyphae into "massive membranes, thousands of acres in
size, hundreds in tons in mass, and thousands of years old." One example
of a honey mushroom (Armillaria):
Is this the largest organism in the world? This 2,400-acre site in eastern Oregon had a contiguous growth of mycelium before logging roads cut through it. Estimated at 1,665 football fields in size and 2,200 years old, this one fungus has killed the forest above it several times over, and in so doing it has built deeper soil layers that allow the growth of ever-larger stands of trees. Mushroom-forming forest fungi are unique in that their mycelial mats can achieve such massive proportions.
Is this the largest organism in the world? This 2,400-acre site in eastern Oregon had a contiguous growth of mycelium before logging roads cut through it. Estimated at 1,665 football fields in size and 2,200 years old . . .
"Animals [including us] are more closely related to fungi than to any other kingdom." Fungi put out their networks of filaments, which secrete acids and enzymes in order to digest food from their surroundings. "The branch of fungi leading to animals evolved to capture nutrients by surrounding their food with cellular sacs, essentially primitive stomachs." When emerging on land, animals developed skin containing many layers of cells for protection and to retain moisture whereas the mycelium with its networks went underground, "forming a vast food web upon which life flourished."
"Animals [including us] are more closely related to fungi than to any other kingdom." Fungi put out their networks of filaments, which secrete acids and enzymes in order to digest food from their surroundings.
In the evolution of the earth and
its living creatures, we have had two major catastrophes that wiped out most
species by massive extinctions. In both cases, mycelium immediately proliferated
on the debris and started the regeneration of plants vital for its own food
and that of all the animals that could then begin to appear.
In present day forests we know that when mycelia surge, they can give out particular
sweet fragrances that attract insects, which attract birds and other animals.
Paul Stamets, author of Mycelium Running, feels that a mycelium with its sensitive
metabolism can fundamentally decide on the direction of an ecosystem. To think
of hidden networks of mycelia in the earth as intelligent and reacting to their
environment is intriguing. However, many people would immediately reject the
idea as absurd. They prefer to ignore the earth and cannot imagine so much power
from hidden living organisms in the soil.
The Mushroom Life Cycle
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of mycelia. They come in many forms and all
produce microscopic spores, which, in many cases are ejected with sufficient
force "to throw them inches away from the mushroom." This force has
been measured as "approximately 10,000 times the forces experienced by
astronauts escaping the gravitational pull of the Earth to obtain orbit."
A large mushroom can " liberate more than 30 billion spores a day."
The spores are so tiny that they look like dust and can be blown by wind, adhere
to insects or animals, or the mushroom can be eaten by an animal that loves
it and the spores land far away in the feces. When a Russola mushroom dies and
disintegrates, "its spores germinate into a mycelial matrix. . . . In a
gram of this myceliated soil more than a mile of cells form; in a cubic inch
more than eight miles."
[Mushrooms] produce microscopic spores, which, in many cases are ejected with sufficient force "to throw them inches away from the mushroom." This force has been measured as "approximately 10,000 times the forces experienced by astronauts escaping the gravitational pull of the Earth to obtain orbit."
Remarkable Facts About Mushrooms
and/or Mycelium
Mycelium networks are constantly growing—up to an inch a day and they are acutely
sensitive to any impingement: be it your step on the earth, a falling log, or
a new chemical—either nutritious or toxic. Stamets believes "that the mycelium
operates at a level of complexity that exceeds the computational powers of our
most advanced supercomputers." If we could interface with these amazing
cellular networks, they "could relay enormous amounts of data regarding
the movements of all organisms through the landscape."
". . . the mycelium operates at a level of complexity that exceeds the computational powers of our most advanced supercomputers." If we could interface with these amazing cellular networks, they "could relay enormous amounts of data regarding the movements of all organisms through the landscape."
Stamets has striking examples of plants, whose growth is dramatically increased by dipping the exposed seedling roots into water enriched with a spore mass. He gives an important warning to all of us: when we buy plants, the soil provided by nurseries is sterilized—so, it is dead and contains no helpful organisms whatsoever.
Comparison of one baby maple with symbiotic mycelium in its roots (tall plant) and the other with none
. . . when we buy plants, the soil provided by nurseries is sterilized—so, it is dead and contains no helpful organisms whatsoever.
"David Perry (in Forest Ecosystems, 1994) postulates that the surface area—hence the absorption capability—of mycorrhizal fungi may be 10 to 100 times greater than the surface area of leaves in a forest." Thus the symbiotic relationships greatly enhance plant growth plus resistance to disease and the fungi receive nourishment in the form of plant-secreted sugars.
". . . the absorption capability—of mycorrhizal fungi may be 10 to 100 times greater than the surface area of leaves in a forest."
Certain endophytes (fungi that live inside many other plants from grasses to trees) can stand extremely hot temperatures and have been shown to help plants containing them continue to live at temperatures that would ordinarily kill the plants. Perhaps these endophytes can enlarge oases and help combat desertification. The vast majority of endophytes are, as yet, unstudied. A great challenge!
Natural Environmental Cleanup
by Mycelia
Mycelia can be amazingly effective in cleaning up the many kinds of pollution
with which we humans have contaminated and poisoned the earth.
Mycelia can be amazingly effective in cleaning up the many kinds of pollution with which we humans have contaminated and poisoned the earth.
Mushrooms can even break down pesticides (including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides, etc.). Many of these chemicals are constructed by industry to be persistent so that ordinarily (and certainly by us), they cannot be broken down and they accumulate in our body fat, as neurotoxins and carcinogens, and continue to injure many other living organisms. Mushrooms, especially saprophytes, have evolved to break down lignin in wood. Lignin is one of nature's toughest molecules and has a similar construction to the PAHs (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) like benzopryene produced by incinerators (and the major carcinogen in cigarette smoke).
Mushrooms . . . have evolved to break down lignin in wood. Lignin is one of nature's toughest molecules and has a similar construction to . . . benzopryene produced by incinerators (and the major carcinogen in cigarette smoke).
Stamets has also found mushroom strains with enzymes that can break the phosphorus bonds in the ubiquitous class of nerve toxin pesticides, the organophosphates. Appropriate mushrooms can break down all these complicated molecules to a smaller size when bacteria can take over and finish the job. Certain mushrooms can even break down dioxins and certainly PCBs (polychlorinated biphenols) and many toxins, such as chromated copper arsenate and the pentachlorophenols (used for treating wood) and sarin, which killed some and injured so many when released into a commuter train in Japan. Stamets has a table setting out which mushrooms are active against which chemical toxins.
Certain mushrooms can even break down dioxins and certainly PCBs (polychlorinated biphenols) and many toxins, such as chromated copper arsenate and the pentachlorophenols (used for treating wood) and sarin, which killed some and injured so many when released into a commuter train in Japan.
Certain mushrooms can tremendously concentrate radioactive cesium from nuclear disasters. In fact after Chernobyl, many mushrooms growing in Europe were found to be highly contaminated and not fit to eat. Actually, even now levels of cesium can be found in mushrooms in Sweden and this contamination is attributed to Chernobyl. Should these mushrooms be gathered and put in a nuclear waste facility?
Certain mushrooms can tremendously concentrate radioactive cesium from nuclear disasters.
Stamets has detailed information on the species of mycelia that are effective in taking up toxic heavy metals from a site and concentrating the metals into their mushrooms. Unfortunately for us, many of the mushrooms that are most active in concentrating the heavy metals are delicious gourmet ones that we would want to eat. Stamets warns us to be exceedingly careful to check exactly on the source of the mushrooms we plan to eat. He states that people should only eat certified organic mushrooms. He himself has been enjoying them for more than thirty years.
mycelia . . . are effective in taking up toxic heavy metals from a site and concentrating the metals into their mushrooms. Unfortunately for us many of the mushrooms that are most active in concentrating the metals are delicious gourmet ones that we would want to eat.
The contaminated mushrooms should be gathered and taken to a toxic waste dump. In that case, they might be incinerated and the metals sold back to industry. However, possibly the metals could be mined from the gathered mushrooms in a more ecologically benign way.
Mushrooms can be amazingly effective in cleaning up contamination from petrochemicals. In his Beyond Pesticides lecture last May, Paul Stamets showed us a slide of two identical piles of debris black with diesel fuel. Mycelia of oyster mushrooms were put on one pile and he showed us how mushrooms grew on the oil and soon after green plants appeared, while the other pile remained unchanged—a black eyesore.
Mushrooms can be amazingly effective in cleaning up contamination from petrochemicals. . . . mushrooms grew on the oil and soon after green plants while the other pile remained unchanged—a black eyesore.
A sack of mycelium can clean and filter toxic runoff. Using appropriate amounts, the awful toxic runoff from CAFOs (Confined Animal Feeding Operations) can be treated and converted into good humus—breaking down the animal waste including coliform bacteria, pesticides, etc., which are used by the agribusinesses to treat the animals. Of course, what we really need to do is to shut down the CAFOs because they result in so many dire health consequences for people who eat animal products produced in this way. In the meantime, it is great to know that there are excellent actions that can be taken, using mycelium to take care of the waste. Immediately, we need to get going on all these actions!
A sack of mycelium can clean and filter toxic runoff.
In conventional forestry, the debris is gathered and burned, releasing all the gases, including carbon dioxide, high into the atmosphere and contributing to global warming. Stamets would have us chip any leftover wood scraps and introduce saprophytic mycelia to break the leftover wood down to earth. Mycelia, like us, release carbon dioxide and water. Our metabolism is the opposite to that of plants that take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Some complain that the release of CO2 by the fungal breakdown of wood is just as high as that released by burning the wood. True. However, there is a vast difference. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and when released by the mycelial metabolism comes forth gradually and close to the earth where it can enhance the growth of plants—in stark contrast to the CO2, released by fire, which goes suddenly high into the atmosphere, where it is no help to any plants and just exacerbates global warming.
Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and when released by the mycelial metabolism comes forth gradually and close to the earth where it can enhance the growth of plants—in stark contrast to the CO2, released by fire, which goes suddenly high into the atmosphere, where it is no help to any plants and just exacerbates global warming.
Mycelium can be really effective insecticides. From his experience with his 1910 house and small waterfront farm, which he bought in 1984, Stamets figured out a unique way to get rid of both social and individual insects that we don't want in our buildings. His home was "a complete disaster." Fungus had already taken over and carpenter ants soon followed. He found soft decayed places in the wood under the carpets and soon great numbers of ants. Ants can be killed by certain mycelia. Their spores land on an ant. The spore sprouts hyphae that can penetrate the ant's exoskeleton (chitin—their hard covering and also that of fungi) and eat its internal organs. Over the millennia social insects have become exceedingly aware of members of their colony that contain fungal spores. They kill and exclude them completely. Stamets knew that numerous fungi, especially certain molds, can kill insects. Thoughtful entrepreneurs have taken the spores of these fungi and tried to introduce them into termite and carpenter ant colonies—often at large expense and with no long-term success at all. Paul Stamets knew that the fungi and the insects have evolved together and are mutually aware. The insects don't want the spores! In his super clean lab Paul Stamets grew the insect-killing fungus Metarhizioum anisopliae and developed a strain temporarily without spores, which emits odors that are attractive to ants and are also feeding stimulants. In the evening he put some of these odoriferous mycelia, which were in rice kernels, beside a pile of sawdust made by the carpenter ants eating the wood in his house. In the middle of the night his teen-age daughter woke him in great excitement. There were a great number of ants, each picking up a rice kernel and carrying it away. All the ants in the colony died and they NEVER came back. Presumably the infected ant bodies made a most effective barrier, warning others to stay away. This unique idea can be applied also to termites and to all other social insects. On December 9, 2003, Stamets received a patent for this breakthrough biotechnology. It seems that mycelia attractants can also be effective against non-social insects, like houseflies, etc., etc.
Mycelium can be really effective insecticides.
Paul Stamets purpose is:
To develop effective and environmentally safe methods for controlling insect pests utilizing fungi. My philosophy is not to wage war against the insect kingdom but to enlist fungal allies for the intelligent, natural, and localized control of targeted insects when and where they threaten people, buildings, jobs, or the environment. We seek balance not extinction.
He also wants "to encourage the use of environmentally safe mycopesticides in impoverished countries."
Medicinal and Gourmet Mushrooms
plus Deadly Poisons
Mycelia and people are attacked by many of the same pathogens—bacteria, viruses,
and other fungi. A mycelium with its only one-cell-wide protective layer is
surrounded by this hostile environment and has over the millennia developed
amazing and wonderful defenses. For this reason, many of our eatable mushrooms
have healthful and truly medicinal effects, including anti-microbial, immune
enhancement, anticancer, and anti-viral. So often we have no defense against
viral infections. However, many different mushrooms can be effective, some even
against HIV/AIDS.
A mycelium with its only one-cell-wide protective layer is surrounded by [a] hostile environment and has over the millennia developed amazing and wonderful defenses.
Stamets gives detailed information on individual mushrooms, including their nutritional profile; their medicinal properties; their flavor, preparation, and cooking; and even, in many cases, their particular mycorestoration potential. For example, morels can emerge promptly in burned areas "where seemingly no life could survive. As these succulent mushrooms mature and release spores, they also release fragrances that attract insects and mammals, including mushroom hunters [and] a biological oasis emerges . . . ."
. . . many of our eatable mushrooms have healthful and truly medicinal effects, including anti-microbial, immune enhancement, anticancer, and anti-viral. So often we have no defense against viral infections. However, many different mushrooms can be effective, some even against HIV/AIDS.
Mushrooms can differ substantially in nutrient, including protein and vitamin, content depending on how they were grown and dried. Stamets presents a spectacular table on the "Influence of Sunlight on Vitamin D Content in Mushrooms." For example, shitake's vitamin D content can vary from 15 IU per 100 grams when "grown in dark, dried in dryer" to 46,000 IU per 100 grams under "normal growth conditions, sun-dried, gills up."
Some mushrooms contain deadly poisons and can look almost exactly the same as delicious eatable ones.
Some mushrooms contain deadly poisons and can look almost exactly the same as delicious eatable ones. Stamets warns us to be exceedingly careful in choosing mushrooms to eat. Certainly in the wild we could be deceived and consume a poisonous mushroom. Some that can be delicious need to be carefully prepared. For example, the morel (Morchella augusticeps), "a superb edible, this mushroom should be thoroughly cooked in a well-ventilated room, because some individuals are sensitive to breathing its volatile vapors or to eating incompletely cooked mushrooms. Morels marry well with cream and butter, making delicious white sauces."
Conclusion
This is a wonderful book to enjoy! It is full of information, which is all carefully
documented.
We know the terrible pollution and destruction of species, including many of our own people, and the awful global warming crisis that human beings have inflicted on the earth. Stamets' book gives us a powerful vision of actions meticulously described, which can gradually and beautifully heal the devastation. In other words, it is a truly optimistic book that we can delight in reading. Also, on a personal level, we can think of enjoying wonderful healing and disease preventing organic mushrooms, which, on top of everything else, are delicious!
". . . insights into the interdependence of human beings and nature . . . and [Stamets] talent for thinking in novel and inventive ways. [Stamets] has always looked at mushrooms from unique perspectives and as a result has made remarkable discoveries about them."
The book is lavishly illustrated with full-color pictures, including three of Dr Andrew Weil, shown happily amidst reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) mushrooms in one of the Stamets' growing rooms; shown in China in 1984 smilingly holding a log with an emerging lion's mane (Hericium erinaceus) mushroom; and holding a harvest of the Stamets' organically grown shitake. Dr. Weil wrote the "FOREWORD" to the book. He has known Paul Stamets for twenty-five years. Dr. Weil "has been repeatedly impressed by [Stamets] insights into the interdependence of human beings and nature . . . and his talent for thinking in novel and inventive ways. He has always looked at mushrooms from unique perspectives and as a result has made remarkable discoveries about them."
The final picture in the book is of turkey tail mushrooms. Paul Stamets says:
This turkey tail strain is one I cloned from a broken branch from my apple tree. Actually, when my kids were toddlers, they jumped on Dr. Andrew Weil while he was lying in our hammock that was supported by two apple trees. One of the branches broke and Andy hit the ground with a thud and with gleeful kids on board. I threw the branch into the bushes. Turkey tail mushrooms fruited, which I cloned, giving rise to the mushrooms seen here. This strain shows strong activity against prostate and other cancers. Such is the way science meanders forward.
Paul Stamets finishes his book with
this statement: "The End . . . of the beginning of the mycorestoration
revolution."
__________
*This article is based on the book by Paul Stamets, MYCELIUM
RUNNING: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley,
California, 2005. Their website is: www.fungi.com
Article from NOHA NEWS,
Vol. XXXI, No. 4, Fall 2006, pages 1-5.